Aylık arşiv: Ocak, 2022

What are Layer 2 Blockchain Solutions?

28 Ocak 2022

what is layer 2

However, the blockchains cannot efficiently scale to meet the growing number of users and transactions. State channels are similar to a side chain, as transactions are recorded off-chain, but these transactions are recorded in bulk off-chain, and then the state of the channel is set at complete. The transactions are then recorded in bulk on the buy bitcoin with debit card main blockchain network by broadcasting a completed “state” to the main network. Sharding is similar to database partitioning, which allows a blockchain database to be broken up into smaller parts so that transactions can be processed simultaneously. Some Layer 1 cryptocurrency blockchains have updated their code to increase the block size, allowing more transactions to be verified at a time, thus expanding the overall capacity of the network.

They are able to transport large amounts of mail and packages across long distances effectively. The mail still arrives in the same place, albeit much faster and in a more cost-effective manner. Fraud proof-based L2s get their scaling benefits by enforcing what can be thought of as an “innocent until proven guilty” policy for their transactions. Ethereum L2s are designed to do just that by solving the parent network’s scalability challenges. Whether you want to play Web3 games, exchange tokens, mint NFTs, or trade ETH, L2s help you do it faster and cheaper.

what is layer 2

ETH L2s: A new way to explore Ethereum

So every time pc try create a packet he send a ARP.(if mac doesnt found in arp table of os) so by that ARP switch will learn mac of the source and by reply arp switch will learn destination mac. In detailed process, there is one error on the 7th line last word…..It’s not “on which it received request” rather “on which it received reply” and it was good explanation…. One thing I would like to ask is that What will happen in a situation in which a PC ‘A’ is making a arp request to PC ‘B’ both connected to a layer 2 switch (same switch) and switch already know the mac address of PC ‘B’…. Will the layer 2 switch respond to the arp query of PC ‘A’ by providing it the mac address of PC ‘B’ and no need to broadcast frame….? Please let me know as this argument was heated between me and my trainer in CCNP lecture.. As of March 2022, Bitcoin and Ethereum made up more than half of the entire cryptocurrency market cap.

For example, Ethereum handles significantly more transactions than its L2 counterparts like Arbitrum One and Zk-sync. Even with popular applications like Uniswap, a large majority of transactions still occur on Ethereum. The economic attractiveness of L2s remains questionable during low-activity periods, potentially leading to market consolidation or mergers and acquisitions among roll-ups unless they evolve into robust, independent ecosystems.

A note on sidechains, validiums, and alternative blockchains

The gaming-focused blockchain boasts “near-instant” transactions with an average cost of less than half a cent. Built on top of Ethereum, Layer 2 blockchains help speed up transaction processing while keeping the costs down for the L1 network. They do the heavy lifting of transactions that Ethereum cannot, simply because it wasn’t designed to prioritize speed. In Ethereum’s case, this growth has brought key scalability issues to the forefront; namely, high transaction fees (gas fees), network congestion, and slow transaction times during periods of high network activity. While core upgrades like the Merge aim to make transactions faster, Ethereum still needs a scaling solution built to handle the masses. Layer 2 solutions don’t just benefit their users, but also the crypto ecosystem as a whole.

From there you can make instant payments to the supermarket as you would with a debit card.
However, “inside” the rollup users will still receive fast transaction confirmation.
For this switch uses one table in its cache memory called MAC Address table or Forwarding Table in which switch stores that at which port which machine is connected by storing its physical address (MAC Address).
And because of this priority in design, not to mention the immense resources it takes to maintain a fully functional ecosystem, they’ve often lacked scalability.
Blobs make rollups cheaper because they allow for the temporary storage of transaction data in a more cost-effective way.

If a user tries to “close out” with an improper balance, then once again, the other user can rectify this with a fraud proof on L1, preventing this attempted theft. When simply using L1 directly, every L1 node must do the work of processing every transaction. Alternatively, with an optimistic L2 solution, transactions only require the software to do a lot of transaction work if there’s a problem, as if it were an assistant submitting a complaint report to the L1. ImmutableX is a zk-rollup scaling solution focused on non-fungible tokens (NFTs) and Web3 games. To that end, ImmutableX has built out software development kits (SDKs) and application programming interfaces (APIs) for game developers to simplify the tedious backend infrastructure.

Layer-2 Scaling Solutions

In particular, TCP/IP does not dictate a strict hierarchical sequence of encapsulation requirements, as is attributed to OSI protocols. Many layer 2 projects how to buy bitcoin using circle are relatively young and still require users to trust some operators to be honest as they work to decentralize their networks. Always do your own research to decide if you’re comfortable with any risks involved. Optimistic rollups are ‘optimistic’ in the sense that transactions are assumed to be valid, but can be challenged if necessary.

Bitcoin Inches Closer to $100K Amid Record $3.4T Crypto Market Cap

Arbitrum One is an Optimistic Rollup that aims to feel exactly like interacting with Ethereum, but with transactions costing a fraction of what they do on L1. There are several different types of layer 2, each having their own trade-offs and security models. Layer 2s take the transactional burden away from the layer 1 allowing it to become less congested, and everything becomes more scalable.

ZKSpace

L2s utilize the underlying blockchain, but only minimally, which translates to L2 users paying lower fees. Using the earlier analogy, the assistant carries the paperwork (transactions) to their desk, processes them, and compresses a big pile of paperwork into a single file. The assistant then sends that file, instead of the whole pile, back to the boss (Ethereum).

The consensus layer is responsible for ensuring that blocks are validated, while the execution layer is in charge of executing transactions. Layer-2s, which post their transaction data back to Ethereum, are mostly affected by changes on the execution layer. If Switch finds the MAC address in Table, Switch forward frame only on the port on which that machine is connected based on MAC Address Table entry which is unlike HUB which broadcast every frame. L2 networks rely on the underlying L1 for security, meaning that all transactions that occur on the L2 network must eventually settle on the larger, more decentralized L1. Nevertheless, sidechains like Polygon carry greater security risks because they operate as independent blockchains which have a native token for rewarding their own set of validators. This could be for the purpose of launching a token or dapp while still taking advantage of the low cost and faster speeds enabled by not deploying smart contracts directly on the L1.

These centralized components allow for companies to deploy quick software bug fixes; in some cases, they are necessary while critical parts of the L2 system are still under development. Virtually all widely used Ethereum L2s still have some such centralized (or at least, not entirely decentralized) parts as of today. If you’re ready to dive deeper into Ethereum Layer 2 networks it doesn’t need to be difficult.

This makes Layer-2 solutions more economically viable and scalable, potentially fostering the development of more complex and efficient applications on these networks. Instead of making changes to the underlying protocol of the main blockchain, it is possible to improve transaction capacity by implementing a layer-2 scaling solution. A layer-2 solution takes interactions off-chain and processes them before communicating them back to the main chain. For blockchain nodes to agree on the validity of a transaction, there must be a framework in place to communicate to the network.

However, due to the rigidity in needing users to lock up funds, coupled with the lack of support for general-purpose smart contracts and DeFi applications in 2021, it was also mostly abandoned. According to Ethhub, teams that are still working on it include CelerX Connext export your accounts – ledger support security Network. Blockchain rollups are another type of layer 2 solution that involves pushing multiple crypto transactions together in one block. This means they are processed in a single transaction, which reduces fees for the user, but also saves data space on the blockchain, which can otherwise cause network congestion.

Пипсы и пункты на Форексе: терминология понятными всем словами

17 Ocak 2022

пункты в трейдинге

В данной статье при поддержке динамичного брокера NPBFX разберемся, что такое пункты в трейдинге и чем они отличаются от пипсов. Вы можете всего за пару кликов оценить стоимость пункта и пипса для любого торгового инструмента в линейке AMarkets для интересующего вас размера сделки. Многие профессиональные трейдеры пользуются этим инструментом, чтобы определить потенциал прибыли и убытка перед открытием позиции в рамках системы риск-менеджмента. Проще говоря, если котировки валютной пары имеют пять знаков после запятой, то пункт соответствует 0,0001. Если же курс записывается через три знака после запятой, то пункт равен 0,01.

пункты в трейдинге

Этот термин появился из английской аббревиатуры IPs (percentage-in-point), что буквально переводится как «процент в пункте». Предлагаем воспользоваться бесплатным индикатором Average True Range, который автоматически предустановлен в торговый терминал MetaTrader.

При пятизначной котировке размер одного пункта составляет 0,00001 (пятая цифра после запятой), а для пар с японской йеной 0,001 (третья цифра после запятой). Пунктом называют величину наименьшего возможного изменения значения котировки. Другими словами изменение в пунктах равно изменению последнего числа после запятой в котировке. Например, если валютная пара EUR/GBP изменилась в стоимости с 0,7155 до 0,7157, говорят, что она выросла на 2 пункта.

На рынке Forex понимание и правильный подсчет пунктов – фундаментальный аспект успешной торговли.
Также достаточно часто можно встретить употребление понятия «fractional pip» в значении «пипс».
При этом, 100 пунктов для пары EURUSD и USDJPY в абсолютных величинах значительно отличаются.
Рассмотрим реальный пример недельной динамики котировок валютной пары EUR/USD с учетом волатильности.
Связано это с тем, что за торговый день таких моментов возникает всего несколько штук.

Что такое Пункт на бирже акций?

Или если валютная пара USD/JPY изменилась в цене с 119,14 до 119,10, говорят, что она понизилась на 4 пункта. Ниже мы покажем вам действенный метод, который вы можете использовать для определения стоимости пункта и пипса, если у вас нет возможности воспользоваться Калькулятором трейдера. При работе с валютными парами, в которые входит японская иена, пункты рассчитываются, учитывая два знака после запятой, а не три. Это важно для правильного понимания изменений цен по таким видам котировок.

Альтернативные варианты торговли и заработок на одном пункте

Рассмотрим данную величину на примере одного доллара. Мы обеспечиваем трейдерам максимально выгодные условия торговли на Форекс рынке. Существует мнение, что торговля на рынке Forex – это игра. Инвестиции в валютный рынок не требуют глубоких математических знаний, но в аналитике трейдер должен разбираться. Одна из важнейших способностей — умение интерпретировать новости.

Почему начинающие трейдеры теряют деньги. Как получать прибыль, а не убытки

Сейчас большинство брокеров работают с пятизначными котировками даже в терминалах МТ4. Ранее пять знаков были доступны только для программ МТ5. Даже опытные трейдеры частенько путаются, как правильно считать пункты на Форекс. Есть ТС, в которых сделки заключаются каждые несколько минут, в день входов больше комон брокер сотни. Успешные пипсовщики – редкость, в подавляющем большинстве случаев пипсовка заканчивается сливом депозита. Что касается того как считать пункты для пар с прямым и обратным котированием, то все проще.

Как уже отметили чуть выше, существуют такие валюты, для которых котировки принято рассчитывать тремя цифрами после запятой. Самый яркий и популярный пример – японская национальная валюта, пары с которой всегда обладают трехзначными котировками. Пункт в таком случае рассчитывается по второму после запятой числу.

Однако стоимость пункта для разных активов отлична. Рассмотрим более подробные примеры, чтобы разобраться как считать пункты в трейдинге. Алгоритм зависит от того, является ли доллар базовой валютой в паре (XXX/USD) или (USD/XXX). Однако в настоящее время ряд брокеров перешли на так называемую пятизначную котировку. Такое котирование подразумевает большую точность и позволяет брокерам перейти на плавающий спред.

Rules of Debit and Credit Definition, Explanation and Examples

12 Ocak 2022

On the other hand, a credit entry often means more liabilities, equity, or income. For instance, when transactions boost accounts receivable, it’s marked as a debit. Meanwhile, the credit part lessens the accounts receivable. Debits and credits shape our financial standings in reports like the balance sheet and income statement.

How to Analyze Accounting Transactions, Part One

The terms originated from the Latin terms “debere” or “debitum” which means “what is due”, and “credere” or “creditum” which means “something entrusted or loaned”. For the past 52 years, Harold Averkamp (CPA, MBA) hasworked as an accounting supervisor, manager, consultant, university instructor, and innovator in teaching accounting online. He is the sole author of all the materials on AccountingCoach.com. For the past 52 years, Harold Averkamp (CPA, MBA) has worked as an accounting supervisor, manager, consultant, university instructor, and innovator in teaching accounting online.

Under the accrual basis of accounting, the matching is NOT based on the date that the expenses are paid.
T-accounts are the scaffolding upon which budding accountants can construct a robust understanding of bookkeeping principles.
In contrast, liability and equity accounts have a credit balance.
Understanding the nature of each account type and its normal balance is key to knowing whether to debit or credit the account in a transaction.
Pour over every transaction and match them against receipts and bank statements.
This is also true of Common Stock and Revenues accounts.

Liabilities and Equity Accounts with Credit Balances

Generally speaking, the balances in temporary accounts increase throughout the accounting year.
For instance, when transactions boost accounts receivable, it’s marked as a debit.
When you place an amount on the normal balance side, you are increasing the account.
Because the rent payment will be used up in the current period (the month of June) it is considered to be an expense, and Rent Expense is debited.
By aligning your expense tracking with these best practices and ensuring your accounting records are kept in an appropriate format, you etch a roadmap to financial clarity and compliance.
Because of the impact on Equity (it decreases), we assign a Normal Debit Balance.

If a company pays rent, it would debit the Rent Expense income summary account. Revenue is the income that a company earns from its business activities, typically from the sale of goods and services to customers. When a company makes a sale, it credits the Revenue account. So, if a company takes out a loan, it would credit the Loan Payable account.

The increase in inventory, an asset, is a debit because that’s its normal balance for inventory.
Insurance Expense, Wages Expense, Advertising Expense, Interest Expense are expenses matched with the period of time in the heading of the income statement.
As we can see from this expanded accounting equation, Assets accounts increase on the debit side and decrease on the credit side.
A journal entry closing the drawing account of a sole proprietorship includes a debit to the owner’s capital account and a credit to the drawing account.
T-accounts help accountants see how debits and credits affect an account.
The types of accounts in accounting are very important.
Based on the rules of debit and credit (debit means left, credit means right), we can determine that Assets (on the left of the equation, the debit side) have a Normal Debit Balance.

Recording Transactions in the Drawing Account

Liabilities increase on https://www.bookstime.com/ the credit side and decrease on the debit side. This is also true of Common Stock and Revenues accounts. This becomes easier to understand as you become familiar with the normal balance of an account. Ed’s inventory would have an ending debit balance of $40,000 and a debit balance in cash of $15,000. These are both asset accounts.He would debit inventory for $10,000 due to the new inventory and credit cash for $10,000 due to the cost.

It would increase the expense account’s normal balance by $50.
For instance, timing your expense recognition to align with tax-efficient periods can optimize deductions.
The normal balance is the expected balance each account type maintains, which is the side that increases.
However, the difference between the two figures in this case would be a debit balance of $2,000, which is an abnormal balance.
It is possible for an account expected to have a normal balance as a debit to actually have a credit balance, and vice versa, but these situations should be in the minority.
Let’s recap which accounts have a Normal Debit Balance and which accounts have a Normal Credit Balance.

Invoice definition in terms of Accounting

For example, terms of “1/10, n/30” indicates that the buyer can deduct 1% of the amount owed if the customer pays the amount owed within 10 days. As a contra revenue account, sales discount will have a debit balance and is subtracted from sales (along with sales returns and allowances) to arrive at net sales. Under the accrual basis of accounting, the Interest Revenues account reports the interest earned by a company during the time period indicated in the heading of the income statement. Interest Revenues account includes interest earned whether or not the interest was received or billed. Interest Revenues are nonoperating revenues or income for companies not in the business of lending money. For companies in the business of lending money, Interest Revenues are reported in the operating section of the multiple-step income statement.

Journal Entry Illustrations for Various Account Types

A current asset account that reports the amount of future rent expense that was paid in advance of the rental period. The amount reported on the balance sheet is the amount that has drawing normal balance not yet been used or expired as of the balance sheet date. Since cash was paid out, the asset account Cash is credited and another account needs to be debited.